A content analysis of 86 citizen blog sites, 53 citizen news sites and 63 daily newspaper sites indicated that citizen journalism sites, including both news and blog sites, differed significantly from newspaper sites.
FINAL PRINT -Engagement in the Details - AN ANALYSIS OF READER INTERACTION AC...Nathan J Stone
This document is an introduction to a final project submitted by Nathan J. Stone for a master's degree. It discusses reader engagement with news across the New York Times and Facebook. It reviews literature on how people consume vast amounts of information through various sources like social media. It also discusses an experiment by NPR where they posted a fake news story to see how many people would comment without reading it. The introduction argues that for a democratic society, readers need to critically analyze and understand what they are reading rather than just scanning headlines. It will analyze reader comments on top stories from the New York Times and Facebook to examine the depth of engagement.
This document discusses the impact of changing media on politics. It covers several topics:
1) The expansion of media choices from broadcast TV to cable and internet has increased fragmentation and polarization as people selectively expose themselves to ideologically-aligned content.
2) New media like blogs and social media have become important sources of political information and organizing, though traditional media still drive much of the content and agenda.
3) While new media enables greater engagement and mobilization, especially on issues of low-interest to most people, the overall impact on "digital democracy" has been more modest than initially hoped due to organizational advantages of traditional players.
Jason A. Cohen - Political Communication Literature Review and Analysis PaperJason A. Cohen
This document analyzes Barack Obama's successful use of internet strategies in his 2008 presidential campaign. It reviews literature showing the increasing role of the internet in political campaigns. Obama recognized voters were getting more information online and embraced new technologies. He used social media more than previous candidates to communicate his message, raise funds, organize supporters, and mobilize voters. This helped him overcome initial disadvantages against opponents like Clinton and McCain. Obama raised record amounts of donations online, including over $500 million of the $750 million total. His multifaceted digital engagement strategies were credited as a major reason for his election victory by staying connected to supporters throughout the campaign.
The RAND Corporation analyzed changes in the style and language of news presentation over the past 30 years across different media platforms. They found that print journalism, broadcast news, and online journalism have shifted toward a more subjective style that relies less on facts and context. Specifically, newspapers and broadcast news before 2000 used more precise language and referred to authorities, while after 2000 they emphasized personal perspectives and opinions more. Prime-time cable programming was even more subjective and argumentative compared to broadcast news. Online journalism had the most personal and opinion-based style compared to the other media. The study provided quantitative evidence of a gradual shift toward subjective reporting across all media over the last three decades.
This document provides a summary of communications skills learned by Brandon Orbanosky at the University of Maryland, as demonstrated through various works. It includes an agenda-setting theory paper explaining how media can influence public perception; a net neutrality paper on how the internet could change with new FCC regulations; a feature story on Californians' views on marijuana legalization; and a public relations program demonstrating various PR materials and strategies. The document introduces each work and provides brief highlights and context.
Technology Use of College Students: An Exploratory StudyJoseph Stabb, ABD
3/2007
“Technology Use of College Students: An Exploratory Study”
Published by the Department of Communication, Rochester Institute of Technology
Stabb, J. (2007). Technology use of college students: an
exploratory study. Converent for Undergraduate Research in Communication, 177-185.
The Scope of Newspaper as a Futuristic Medium for PublicityDr. Amarjeet Singh
The news paper as a medium for publicity and
Advertisements is losing its luster and relevance in America
and some western countries. But the same medium has shown
remarkable growth in India. Circulation increased by more
than 23 million copies a day between 2006 and 2016,
according to a new report from India's Audit Bureau of
Circulation. That's average growth of nearly 5% per year.
Meanwhile, circulation came down in major Western
countries including the U.S. (-3%), France (-6%), Germany (-
9%) and the U.K. (-12%). Despite the strong growth of digital
media in India, the traditional formats of television and print
still account for the largest portion of total media ad
expenditure. India remains somewhat unusual in that print
revenues continue to grow, with newspapers specifically still
serving as an effective way for advertisers to reach a
significant audience. The research reports point out that
newspaper growth was really coming from papers published
in Hindi and in other local languages and dialects—generally
referred to collectively as “vernacular” papers. English is
used in India’s largest cities, leaving readers in smaller cities
and rural areas with an appetite for content in their local
languages. The scope of the present research paper is to
identify reasons for this and futuristic scope for news paper
as a medium for publicity.
This document is a 10,488 word dissertation submitted by Oliver Wilkinson to the University of Lincoln in partial fulfillment of a BA in Journalism. The dissertation examines the past, present, and future relationship between the police and press in the UK. Wilkinson conducted semi-structured interviews with current and former journalists, police officers, and public relations professionals. The dissertation consists of an introduction outlining the topic, a methodology section describing the interview process, a literature review of existing research on the topic, and three chapters analyzing different aspects of the police-press relationship and its challenges. The conclusion considers the future of the relationship between the two institutions.
FINAL PRINT -Engagement in the Details - AN ANALYSIS OF READER INTERACTION AC...Nathan J Stone
This document is an introduction to a final project submitted by Nathan J. Stone for a master's degree. It discusses reader engagement with news across the New York Times and Facebook. It reviews literature on how people consume vast amounts of information through various sources like social media. It also discusses an experiment by NPR where they posted a fake news story to see how many people would comment without reading it. The introduction argues that for a democratic society, readers need to critically analyze and understand what they are reading rather than just scanning headlines. It will analyze reader comments on top stories from the New York Times and Facebook to examine the depth of engagement.
This document discusses the impact of changing media on politics. It covers several topics:
1) The expansion of media choices from broadcast TV to cable and internet has increased fragmentation and polarization as people selectively expose themselves to ideologically-aligned content.
2) New media like blogs and social media have become important sources of political information and organizing, though traditional media still drive much of the content and agenda.
3) While new media enables greater engagement and mobilization, especially on issues of low-interest to most people, the overall impact on "digital democracy" has been more modest than initially hoped due to organizational advantages of traditional players.
Jason A. Cohen - Political Communication Literature Review and Analysis PaperJason A. Cohen
This document analyzes Barack Obama's successful use of internet strategies in his 2008 presidential campaign. It reviews literature showing the increasing role of the internet in political campaigns. Obama recognized voters were getting more information online and embraced new technologies. He used social media more than previous candidates to communicate his message, raise funds, organize supporters, and mobilize voters. This helped him overcome initial disadvantages against opponents like Clinton and McCain. Obama raised record amounts of donations online, including over $500 million of the $750 million total. His multifaceted digital engagement strategies were credited as a major reason for his election victory by staying connected to supporters throughout the campaign.
The RAND Corporation analyzed changes in the style and language of news presentation over the past 30 years across different media platforms. They found that print journalism, broadcast news, and online journalism have shifted toward a more subjective style that relies less on facts and context. Specifically, newspapers and broadcast news before 2000 used more precise language and referred to authorities, while after 2000 they emphasized personal perspectives and opinions more. Prime-time cable programming was even more subjective and argumentative compared to broadcast news. Online journalism had the most personal and opinion-based style compared to the other media. The study provided quantitative evidence of a gradual shift toward subjective reporting across all media over the last three decades.
This document provides a summary of communications skills learned by Brandon Orbanosky at the University of Maryland, as demonstrated through various works. It includes an agenda-setting theory paper explaining how media can influence public perception; a net neutrality paper on how the internet could change with new FCC regulations; a feature story on Californians' views on marijuana legalization; and a public relations program demonstrating various PR materials and strategies. The document introduces each work and provides brief highlights and context.
Technology Use of College Students: An Exploratory StudyJoseph Stabb, ABD
3/2007
“Technology Use of College Students: An Exploratory Study”
Published by the Department of Communication, Rochester Institute of Technology
Stabb, J. (2007). Technology use of college students: an
exploratory study. Converent for Undergraduate Research in Communication, 177-185.
The Scope of Newspaper as a Futuristic Medium for PublicityDr. Amarjeet Singh
The news paper as a medium for publicity and
Advertisements is losing its luster and relevance in America
and some western countries. But the same medium has shown
remarkable growth in India. Circulation increased by more
than 23 million copies a day between 2006 and 2016,
according to a new report from India's Audit Bureau of
Circulation. That's average growth of nearly 5% per year.
Meanwhile, circulation came down in major Western
countries including the U.S. (-3%), France (-6%), Germany (-
9%) and the U.K. (-12%). Despite the strong growth of digital
media in India, the traditional formats of television and print
still account for the largest portion of total media ad
expenditure. India remains somewhat unusual in that print
revenues continue to grow, with newspapers specifically still
serving as an effective way for advertisers to reach a
significant audience. The research reports point out that
newspaper growth was really coming from papers published
in Hindi and in other local languages and dialects—generally
referred to collectively as “vernacular” papers. English is
used in India’s largest cities, leaving readers in smaller cities
and rural areas with an appetite for content in their local
languages. The scope of the present research paper is to
identify reasons for this and futuristic scope for news paper
as a medium for publicity.
This document is a 10,488 word dissertation submitted by Oliver Wilkinson to the University of Lincoln in partial fulfillment of a BA in Journalism. The dissertation examines the past, present, and future relationship between the police and press in the UK. Wilkinson conducted semi-structured interviews with current and former journalists, police officers, and public relations professionals. The dissertation consists of an introduction outlining the topic, a methodology section describing the interview process, a literature review of existing research on the topic, and three chapters analyzing different aspects of the police-press relationship and its challenges. The conclusion considers the future of the relationship between the two institutions.
The document summarizes findings from a Pew Research Center survey on social media usage in 2013. Some key findings include:
- Facebook remains the most popular social media platform, used by 71% of online adults. However, usage of other platforms like Instagram, Pinterest, and LinkedIn is growing.
- 42% of online adults now use multiple social media sites, with Facebook being the primary platform for most.
- Facebook and Instagram have high levels of user engagement, with over half of users on each site visiting daily.
This document discusses fake news and its potential influence on elections. It provides examples of fake news stories that spread on Facebook during the 2016 US presidential election. It also discusses definitions of fake news, the types of fake news identified by First Draft, and analyses of fake news submitted to the UK Parliament's inquiry. It argues that fake news can negatively impact democracy by misinforming citizens and producing polarized societies with decreased confidence in government.
Crossroads Reporting: The Intersection of Traditional Media and Citizen Journ...Ilona Meagher
This document discusses the intersection between traditional media and citizen journalism. It reviews literature showing that citizens are increasingly dissatisfied with traditional media and turning to blogs and citizen journalism instead. The rise of citizen journalism is likely due to both decreased quality and staffing in traditional media newsrooms, as well as new technologies empowering citizens to participate in media. Citizen journalism plays an important watchdog role and fills niches underserved by traditional media. However, some journalists remain wary of its less professional approach. Overall, the document argues traditional media and citizen journalism can have a symbiotic relationship if they learn to work together.
This document is a continuous assessment cover sheet for a student named Thomas Roe completing a module called "Enterprise Communications" for their second year of a program. It includes details of the student's name, student number, program, year, module, lecturer, and word count for the assessment. The student declares that the attached report is their original work.
The document discusses the history and changes in journalism from the 1940s to the present. It covers several topics:
- The evolution of journalistic tools and processes from typewriters to computers and digital tools. This allowed for new types of data analysis and computer-assisted reporting.
- Examples of early computer-assisted reporting in the 1950s-1990s, such as predicting election outcomes and analyzing data to uncover biases in the criminal justice system.
- The impact of digital technology, as all data became digital and accessible online. This required new tools and skills for data analysis and storytelling.
- The decline of local newspapers from 2004 onward, with over 1,800 papers closing and many communities now
The aim of this Special Issue of Central European Political Studies is to
bring media scholars together and to reflect on the current trends in political journalism in our region. The focus of the articles is trained on the discovery of the shifts
and continuities in journalistic practises 25 years after the collapse of the communist regimes. Some of the findings and conclusions presented in the volume come
from studies conducted within the framework of international comparative research
projects such as Worlds of Journalism, Journalistic Role Performance Around the
Globe, or Media Accountability and Transparency in Europe (MediaAcT). The others
come from single, national empirical studies or analyses on the media systems conducted in the Central and Eastern countries.
Younger Americans’ Reading and Library HabitsPDA Ekniga
More than eight in ten Americans ages 16-29 read a book in the past year, and six in ten used their local public library. Many say they are reading more in the era of digital content, especially on their mobile phones and on computers.
Kathryn
In the present times, social media is one such platform which has been useful in connecting the people throughout the world. Be it a personal interaction, a product promotion, an advertisement or a political campaign, social media has formed to be the best platform to connect to people globally. In this report the discussion will be focused on the how and why the social media has been used as the medium for political campaigns in offices. The importance of social media for political campaigns will be analyzed and discussed. Thus the research will be focused on the role of social media in political engagement. There will be analysis of how the new age media has increased the possibilities to the ideal situation for political campaign
This study examined how news readers perceive automated journalism in terms of message and source credibility, and whether credibility affects the selection of automated content. The researchers conducted an online experiment with 300 European news readers and exposed them to news articles produced by humans, algorithms, or a combination. They found that message credibility was generally equal between human and automated content, except for sports articles where automated content was seen as more credible. Source credibility was also seen as equal between human and algorithm authors. Credibility did not influence whether readers would select articles for consumption. The findings suggest that effects of algorithms on journalistic quality are largely indistinguishable to readers.
1) In the postwar era from 1945-1970s, British voting behavior was highly predictable, with strong correlations between social class, occupation, and voting patterns. However, beginning in the 1970s-1980s, a period of "dealignment" began as class distinctions weakened and voting became less predictable.
2) As dealignment occurred, the "communications barrier" between the media and the public eroded, allowing the media to have more influence on the public in areas like agenda-setting, learning, framing issues, and persuasion.
3) Studies found correlations between the partisan leanings of British newspapers and their readers, though it was unclear if the media shaped views or readers chose congenial papers
Gatewatching and News Curation: Journalism and Social MediaAxel Bruns
This document summarizes key points from Axel Bruns' book "Gatewatching and News Curation: Journalism, Social Media, and the Public Sphere". It discusses how social media has changed journalism and news sharing by allowing widespread citizen participation. Journalists and news organizations have had to adapt by embracing social media and curating news on platforms. However, platforms now dominate online advertising revenue while the funding model for journalism remains precarious. There are also concerns about echo chambers, groupthink and the "metrification" of news promoting populism.
Lies, Spies and Big Data: How Fake News Is Rewriting Political LandscapesRussian Council
On November 7, 2016, Donald Trump was elected President of the United States after a bitterly-fought campaign against Hillary Clinton. The election was very closely-run, with Hillary Clinton winning the popular vote, but losing the presidency based on the U.S. electoral college structure. However, months after Donald Trump was declared President of the United States, questions remain about the legitimacy of the U.S. elections. The central issues are the emergence and use of so-called ‘Fake News’ and the accusation that Russia, through espionage and online hacking operations, sought to influence the presidential elections to promote Donald Trump and denigrate the reputation of Hillary Clinton.
The issues thrown up in the wake of the U.S. presidential election have fundamentally undermined trust in the workings of the international media and further damaged U.S.–Russia relations. A report by the U.S. intelligence services accusing Russia of attempting to influence the outcome of the election, prepared for President Obama and published in the election’s immediate aftermath, led to the expulsion1 of 35 Russian diplomats from Washington just days after the results were announced. President Putin, on the other hand, opted not to expel any U.S. diplomats from Russia. The investigation into Russia’s involvement and influence on the U.S. elections continues today.
This policy brief provides an overview of how the gathering and dissemination of news has changed in a globalized digital environment, how consumers digest and share news at an ever-increasing pace, and how the management of big data can influence electorates across borders. It will also define ‘fake news’ and the extent to which it might have influenced the results of the U.S. elections.
The document summarizes previous literature on the benefits that the Democratic and Republican parties receive from holding their national conventions. Some studies have found that the Democratic Party benefits more in terms of electoral gains. The literature disagrees on whether convention location matters and if it produces benefits. Some studies found no statewide effects, while others found local benefits within media markets. Most agree that Democrats receive greater benefits, such as larger vote increases and ability to attract voters across party lines. Explanations for the Democratic advantage are not fully explained in the literature.
This document summarizes key points from Axel Bruns' research on how social media has impacted journalism. It discusses how gatewatching and news sharing have become habitual on social platforms. Journalists have adapted by becoming news curators and personal brands. However, platforms now siphon most advertising revenue, leaving journalism funding precarious. The document calls for ensuring platforms uphold corporate social responsibility and providing public interest research access to user data.
Rachel Miller Social Media and Image in Political CampaignsRachel Miller M.S
This document discusses how political campaigns have changed with new media like the internet and social media. It focuses on how image and motivation are key aspects of campaigns and how they are impacted by these changes. Specifically, it notes that the internet allows for more rapid spread of information, both positive and negative, which can impact a candidate's image. It also discusses how social media can help campaigns motivate voters and keep them engaged throughout the process.
The document summarizes several audience theory models:
1) The effects model views audiences as passive recipients of media messages. More recent models see audiences as more active.
2) Uses and gratifications theory sees audiences as active in selecting media to fulfill needs like entertainment and social interaction.
3) The active audience model recognizes that audiences can interpret media messages in different, sometimes opposing ways.
4) The ethnographic model examines audience behaviors and preferences through qualitative research like interviews in cultural contexts.
The political context influences newspaper ownership and regulation in several ways:
1) Newspapers are often owned by wealthy individuals seeking political/social influence rather than just profits, unlike other industries.
2) Regulators like the Competition and Markets Authority limit ownership concentration to promote media plurality and free market competition.
3) Newspapers have editorial freedom but owners can still influence content through close relationships with politicians, as the Leveson Inquiry found.
4) Newspapers self-regulate but competing regulatory bodies like IPSO and Impress illustrate debates around how this should work.
Kim, M.J., & Park, H. W. (2012). Measuring Twitter-Based Political Participat...Han Woo PARK
Kim, M.J., & Park, H. W. (2012). Measuring Twitter-Based Political Participation and Deliberation in the South Korean Context by Using Social Network and Triple Helix Indicators. Scientometrics. 90 (1), 121-140.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11192-011-0508-5#page-1
This chapter discusses news gathering and reporting in the digital age. It covers the main theories of the press, qualities that characterize news, types of news stories, and how digital technologies have impacted news media. The chapter also describes the news business, reporting process, news flow, role of the Associated Press wire service, and similarities/differences between print, broadcast and online journalism.
Journalist Involvement in Comment SectionsGenaro Bardy
The document discusses two studies conducted by the Engaging News Project to examine the effects of journalist involvement in online news comment sections. The studies found that when journalists interacted with commenters by asking questions and highlighting productive comments, it improved the civility of the comments. Asking site visitors closed-ended questions about the news content prior to the comment section also promoted greater civility. Preliminary results also suggested that asking questions can increase time spent on the news site page, but more research is needed. The report provides recommendations for newsrooms to reduce uncivil comments and potentially increase engagement through journalist involvement in comment sections.
The document summarizes findings from a Pew Research Center survey on social media usage in 2013. Some key findings include:
- Facebook remains the most popular social media platform, used by 71% of online adults. However, usage of other platforms like Instagram, Pinterest, and LinkedIn is growing.
- 42% of online adults now use multiple social media sites, with Facebook being the primary platform for most.
- Facebook and Instagram have high levels of user engagement, with over half of users on each site visiting daily.
This document discusses fake news and its potential influence on elections. It provides examples of fake news stories that spread on Facebook during the 2016 US presidential election. It also discusses definitions of fake news, the types of fake news identified by First Draft, and analyses of fake news submitted to the UK Parliament's inquiry. It argues that fake news can negatively impact democracy by misinforming citizens and producing polarized societies with decreased confidence in government.
Crossroads Reporting: The Intersection of Traditional Media and Citizen Journ...Ilona Meagher
This document discusses the intersection between traditional media and citizen journalism. It reviews literature showing that citizens are increasingly dissatisfied with traditional media and turning to blogs and citizen journalism instead. The rise of citizen journalism is likely due to both decreased quality and staffing in traditional media newsrooms, as well as new technologies empowering citizens to participate in media. Citizen journalism plays an important watchdog role and fills niches underserved by traditional media. However, some journalists remain wary of its less professional approach. Overall, the document argues traditional media and citizen journalism can have a symbiotic relationship if they learn to work together.
This document is a continuous assessment cover sheet for a student named Thomas Roe completing a module called "Enterprise Communications" for their second year of a program. It includes details of the student's name, student number, program, year, module, lecturer, and word count for the assessment. The student declares that the attached report is their original work.
The document discusses the history and changes in journalism from the 1940s to the present. It covers several topics:
- The evolution of journalistic tools and processes from typewriters to computers and digital tools. This allowed for new types of data analysis and computer-assisted reporting.
- Examples of early computer-assisted reporting in the 1950s-1990s, such as predicting election outcomes and analyzing data to uncover biases in the criminal justice system.
- The impact of digital technology, as all data became digital and accessible online. This required new tools and skills for data analysis and storytelling.
- The decline of local newspapers from 2004 onward, with over 1,800 papers closing and many communities now
The aim of this Special Issue of Central European Political Studies is to
bring media scholars together and to reflect on the current trends in political journalism in our region. The focus of the articles is trained on the discovery of the shifts
and continuities in journalistic practises 25 years after the collapse of the communist regimes. Some of the findings and conclusions presented in the volume come
from studies conducted within the framework of international comparative research
projects such as Worlds of Journalism, Journalistic Role Performance Around the
Globe, or Media Accountability and Transparency in Europe (MediaAcT). The others
come from single, national empirical studies or analyses on the media systems conducted in the Central and Eastern countries.
Younger Americans’ Reading and Library HabitsPDA Ekniga
More than eight in ten Americans ages 16-29 read a book in the past year, and six in ten used their local public library. Many say they are reading more in the era of digital content, especially on their mobile phones and on computers.
Kathryn
In the present times, social media is one such platform which has been useful in connecting the people throughout the world. Be it a personal interaction, a product promotion, an advertisement or a political campaign, social media has formed to be the best platform to connect to people globally. In this report the discussion will be focused on the how and why the social media has been used as the medium for political campaigns in offices. The importance of social media for political campaigns will be analyzed and discussed. Thus the research will be focused on the role of social media in political engagement. There will be analysis of how the new age media has increased the possibilities to the ideal situation for political campaign
This study examined how news readers perceive automated journalism in terms of message and source credibility, and whether credibility affects the selection of automated content. The researchers conducted an online experiment with 300 European news readers and exposed them to news articles produced by humans, algorithms, or a combination. They found that message credibility was generally equal between human and automated content, except for sports articles where automated content was seen as more credible. Source credibility was also seen as equal between human and algorithm authors. Credibility did not influence whether readers would select articles for consumption. The findings suggest that effects of algorithms on journalistic quality are largely indistinguishable to readers.
1) In the postwar era from 1945-1970s, British voting behavior was highly predictable, with strong correlations between social class, occupation, and voting patterns. However, beginning in the 1970s-1980s, a period of "dealignment" began as class distinctions weakened and voting became less predictable.
2) As dealignment occurred, the "communications barrier" between the media and the public eroded, allowing the media to have more influence on the public in areas like agenda-setting, learning, framing issues, and persuasion.
3) Studies found correlations between the partisan leanings of British newspapers and their readers, though it was unclear if the media shaped views or readers chose congenial papers
Gatewatching and News Curation: Journalism and Social MediaAxel Bruns
This document summarizes key points from Axel Bruns' book "Gatewatching and News Curation: Journalism, Social Media, and the Public Sphere". It discusses how social media has changed journalism and news sharing by allowing widespread citizen participation. Journalists and news organizations have had to adapt by embracing social media and curating news on platforms. However, platforms now dominate online advertising revenue while the funding model for journalism remains precarious. There are also concerns about echo chambers, groupthink and the "metrification" of news promoting populism.
Lies, Spies and Big Data: How Fake News Is Rewriting Political LandscapesRussian Council
On November 7, 2016, Donald Trump was elected President of the United States after a bitterly-fought campaign against Hillary Clinton. The election was very closely-run, with Hillary Clinton winning the popular vote, but losing the presidency based on the U.S. electoral college structure. However, months after Donald Trump was declared President of the United States, questions remain about the legitimacy of the U.S. elections. The central issues are the emergence and use of so-called ‘Fake News’ and the accusation that Russia, through espionage and online hacking operations, sought to influence the presidential elections to promote Donald Trump and denigrate the reputation of Hillary Clinton.
The issues thrown up in the wake of the U.S. presidential election have fundamentally undermined trust in the workings of the international media and further damaged U.S.–Russia relations. A report by the U.S. intelligence services accusing Russia of attempting to influence the outcome of the election, prepared for President Obama and published in the election’s immediate aftermath, led to the expulsion1 of 35 Russian diplomats from Washington just days after the results were announced. President Putin, on the other hand, opted not to expel any U.S. diplomats from Russia. The investigation into Russia’s involvement and influence on the U.S. elections continues today.
This policy brief provides an overview of how the gathering and dissemination of news has changed in a globalized digital environment, how consumers digest and share news at an ever-increasing pace, and how the management of big data can influence electorates across borders. It will also define ‘fake news’ and the extent to which it might have influenced the results of the U.S. elections.
The document summarizes previous literature on the benefits that the Democratic and Republican parties receive from holding their national conventions. Some studies have found that the Democratic Party benefits more in terms of electoral gains. The literature disagrees on whether convention location matters and if it produces benefits. Some studies found no statewide effects, while others found local benefits within media markets. Most agree that Democrats receive greater benefits, such as larger vote increases and ability to attract voters across party lines. Explanations for the Democratic advantage are not fully explained in the literature.
This document summarizes key points from Axel Bruns' research on how social media has impacted journalism. It discusses how gatewatching and news sharing have become habitual on social platforms. Journalists have adapted by becoming news curators and personal brands. However, platforms now siphon most advertising revenue, leaving journalism funding precarious. The document calls for ensuring platforms uphold corporate social responsibility and providing public interest research access to user data.
Rachel Miller Social Media and Image in Political CampaignsRachel Miller M.S
This document discusses how political campaigns have changed with new media like the internet and social media. It focuses on how image and motivation are key aspects of campaigns and how they are impacted by these changes. Specifically, it notes that the internet allows for more rapid spread of information, both positive and negative, which can impact a candidate's image. It also discusses how social media can help campaigns motivate voters and keep them engaged throughout the process.
The document summarizes several audience theory models:
1) The effects model views audiences as passive recipients of media messages. More recent models see audiences as more active.
2) Uses and gratifications theory sees audiences as active in selecting media to fulfill needs like entertainment and social interaction.
3) The active audience model recognizes that audiences can interpret media messages in different, sometimes opposing ways.
4) The ethnographic model examines audience behaviors and preferences through qualitative research like interviews in cultural contexts.
The political context influences newspaper ownership and regulation in several ways:
1) Newspapers are often owned by wealthy individuals seeking political/social influence rather than just profits, unlike other industries.
2) Regulators like the Competition and Markets Authority limit ownership concentration to promote media plurality and free market competition.
3) Newspapers have editorial freedom but owners can still influence content through close relationships with politicians, as the Leveson Inquiry found.
4) Newspapers self-regulate but competing regulatory bodies like IPSO and Impress illustrate debates around how this should work.
Kim, M.J., & Park, H. W. (2012). Measuring Twitter-Based Political Participat...Han Woo PARK
Kim, M.J., & Park, H. W. (2012). Measuring Twitter-Based Political Participation and Deliberation in the South Korean Context by Using Social Network and Triple Helix Indicators. Scientometrics. 90 (1), 121-140.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11192-011-0508-5#page-1
This chapter discusses news gathering and reporting in the digital age. It covers the main theories of the press, qualities that characterize news, types of news stories, and how digital technologies have impacted news media. The chapter also describes the news business, reporting process, news flow, role of the Associated Press wire service, and similarities/differences between print, broadcast and online journalism.
Journalist Involvement in Comment SectionsGenaro Bardy
The document discusses two studies conducted by the Engaging News Project to examine the effects of journalist involvement in online news comment sections. The studies found that when journalists interacted with commenters by asking questions and highlighting productive comments, it improved the civility of the comments. Asking site visitors closed-ended questions about the news content prior to the comment section also promoted greater civility. Preliminary results also suggested that asking questions can increase time spent on the news site page, but more research is needed. The report provides recommendations for newsrooms to reduce uncivil comments and potentially increase engagement through journalist involvement in comment sections.
The document summarizes a research study examining reader comments on online opinion journalism. The researchers developed an operational definition of public deliberation based on previous literature. They then conducted a content analysis of reader comments on the opinion pages of two major regional American newspapers. The analysis provided insight into how elements of public deliberation, such as the sharing of diverse perspectives and personal experiences, are present in reader comments. It also identified dimensions of deliberation that are more common in comments and directions for further research. The study aims to understand the potential for reader comments to serve as a space for public deliberation.
The rise of social media and its impact on mainstream journalism Victor Mambor
e rise of social media and its impact on
mainstream journalism:
A study of how newspapers and broadcasters in the UK and
US are responding to a wave of participatory social media,
and a historic shi in control towards individual consumers.
This study assessed the robustness of local journalism in 100 randomly selected US communities with populations between 20,000-300,000. Researchers identified local media outlets, archived over 16,000 news stories from a week in 2016, and analyzed stories for originality, locality, and whether they addressed critical information needs. The study found that some communities lacked original, local, or need-addressing stories. On average, only 17% of stories were truly local and 43% original. The study also identified relationships between community characteristics like distance from large markets, university presence, and ethnicity, with the robustness of local journalism.
The Rise Of Social Media And Its Impact On Mainstream Journalismtwofourseven
This document provides a summary of a working paper about how mainstream media organizations in the UK and US are responding to the rise of social media and user-generated content.
The key conclusions are:
1. Participation in social media has exploded in recent years, forcing traditional media to take note.
2. Social media is fundamentally changing breaking news by compressing news cycles and increasing pressure on editors.
3. Journalists are beginning to embrace social media, but on their own terms by marrying new tools with organizational norms through guidelines and training.
4. Social media is creating an extra layer of information and opinion, not replacing journalism, though people increasingly engage with information recommended by friends.
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Citizen jounalism web site complement
1. 34 - Newspaper Research Journal • Vol. 31, No. 2 • Spring 2010
Citizen Journalism Web Sites
Complement Newspapers
by Stephen Lacy, Margaret Duffy, Daniel Riffe, Esther Thorson and
Ken Fleming
A content analysis of 86 citizen blog sites, 53
citizen news sites and 63 daily newspaper sites
indicated that citizen journalism sites, including
both news and blog sites, differed significantly from
newspaper sites.
T he migration of media to the Internet and the deep recession that started
in 2008 has had an exponential impact on the traditional daily newspaper
industry. Although readers appear to be making the slow transition to digital
“newspapers,”1 advertising lineage is not.2 The result has been the disappear-
ance of public newspaper companies such as Knight Ridder and the Tribune
Company, the filing for bankruptcy by other newspaper companies and a
continuing decline in newsroom personnel.3
As a result of these two forces, observers in 2009 expressed concerns about
the survival of newspapers.4 But if major players like Knight Ridder and Tri-
bune make the biggest business-page headlines, other observers speculate on
who will provide the community information needed by citizens of individual
communities.
Some academics and industry analysts have suggested that online citizen
journalism might evolve and develop to the point of compensating for de-
__________________________________________
Lacy is a professor in the School of Journalism at Michigan State University. Riffe
is the Richard Cole Eminent Professor in the College of Journalism and Mass
Communication at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Duffy is an
associate professor, Thorson is a professor and Fleming is the director of the Center
for Advanced Social Research. They are in the School of Journalism at the University
of Missouri. Funding for this research was provided by the John S. and James L.
Knight Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts.
2. Lacy, Duffy, Riffe, Thorson and Fleming: Citizen Journalism Web Sites - 35
clining community coverage resulting from decreased newspaper reporting
resources.5
This study aims to explore this possibility by using content analysis and
other data to evaluate whether citizen journalism Web sites have the potential
actually to be such substitutes for the information currently provided by daily
newspapers’ Web sites. The evaluation begins with a foundation in media
economics theory and then examines key attributes—timeliness and structure
of both citizen journalism and traditional daily newspaper sites—to determine
if the sites resemble each other enough to possibly fulfill similar functions for
readers.
Theoretical Framework
Neoclassical economic theory states that demand is a function of a product’s
price, the price of complements and substitutes, individuals’ income and taste6
but not all these factors apply equally here.
In the short-run, for example, individual income would not affect the
substitution of citizen journalism for traditional newspaper Web sites because
an individual’s income would be unaffected by such a choice. A person with a
$50,000 annual income will still have that income whether she or he substitutes
citizen journalism sites for traditional newspaper sites.
Second, because citizen journalism sites tend to be free and most newspaper
sites remain free, with the exception of archives,7 the price cross-elasticity of
demand does not have a large effect on demand. If a substitute for a product
is free, there is no price to affect demand.
The role of the price of complements as a determinant of newspaper demand
remains unexplored. Complements are products that are consumed in conjunc-
tion with another product. For example, some people may have complementary
products they use with newspapers, coffee for example, but the relationship
between reading newspapers and consuming a complementary product vary
from person to person and from time to time for the same person.
Research indicates that the price of newspapers is fairly inelastic.8 Changes
in price have traditionally had little impact on total demand because many mar-
kets lack close substitutes for newspapers. In addition, the price of newspapers
remains relatively low compared to other products. In short, the absence of a
significant role for price and income suggests that the content of the newspaper
and reader taste have the greatest impact on individual newspaper demand.9
Unfortunately, neoclassical economic theory assumes taste is constant and
provides little help in analyzing substitutes on the basis of taste. However,
media economics research and theory have addressed this issue.
In a model based on the theory of monopolistic competition,10 Lacy posited
that people evaluate media products on the basis of attributes.11 Product attri-
butes take a variety of forms, such as the nature of stories, the structure of the
media product and the accessibility of the material online, among others. The
3. 36 - Newspaper Research Journal • Vol. 31, No. 2 • Spring 2010
term content is used in the model to include presentation elements as well as
the symbolic presentation of information. The attributes that are important to
any given individual vary. Willingness to substitute one product for another
depends on whether the attributes of the first product adequately meet the
person’s needs and wants. To be a substitute, a media product’s attributes
must fulfill the same functions as attributes of the original media product. For
example, The New York Times Web site is a good substitute for CNN for some-
one who uses both for the surveillance function and checks on the latest news
throughout the day.
Although the functions of a set of content attributes can vary from per-
son to person, the levels of variation are constrained by the content itself. A
city council story cannot satisfy a person seeking a story about a professional
basketball game. Similar content in two media products is more likely to meet
the same needs and wants than is dissimilar content. Because substitutability
is anchored in aspects of content, content analysis can be used to measure po-
tential substitutability.
However, the question that needs addressing is: What types of attributes
are important for determining the substitutability of citizen journalism Web
sites and traditional newspaper sites?
Two types of attributes come to mind immediately: timeliness and the
nature of the Web site. A potentially substitutable Web site with characteristics
similar to the original site is more likely to serve similar functions and require
less investment in time. News products also have time attributes. Publication
cycle—hourly, daily or weekly—is a product attribute that affects substitut-
ability.12 To substitute for a daily newspaper, citizen journalism sites need to be
timely and predictable in posting content. Web sites with irregular and erratic
postings will likely not be acceptable substitutes for daily newspaper sites.
Literature Review
Much of the literature about online citizen journalism falls into three
types:
• Explorations of the Web’s potential for citizen journalism
• Descriptions of the nature of online citizen journalism
• Description of Web site characteristics that people use and want
In early discussions of online citizen journalism, observers saw a promising
alternative to the powerful journalistic gatekeeper. For example, Glaser said in
2004 that he believed citizen journalists would instead function as “shepherds”
who would encourage and welcome individual citizens’ reports and com-
ments.13 Gillmor called this grassroots journalism,14 while others in 2007, using
software development terminology, called it “open source journalism.”15 Still
others saw citizen journalism as a vehicle to bring together different kinds of
content: traditional mainstream news, opinion and commentary and a forum
for sharing and discussing.16
4. Lacy, Duffy, Riffe, Thorson and Fleming: Citizen Journalism Web Sites - 37
Other studies have examined the nature of online news. Soon after news-
papers started going online, Tankard and Ban found few online news sites
offering significant levels of interactivity and technological richness.17 Even in
2004, Massey’s study of a convenience sample of 38 online newspapers revealed
few online newspapers providing sophisticated multimedia context.18 A few
years later, in a study of 42 online newspapers, Tremayne, Weiss and Aves found
increasing use of video, especially in stories about accidents, crime, sports and
weather.19 Greer and Mensing also found growth in interactivity and multimedia
in 1997 to 2003 online newspapers.20
However, these studies did not directly address citizen journalism. A
2009 article examined 64 citizen journalism sites in 15 cities and found that a
majority (60 percent) of the sites sought citizen participation.21 The sites pro-
vided limited interactivity possibilities, and 14 percent ceased to exist within
six months. The study also found many differences between citizen blog and
citizen news sites.
Rosenberry22 examined 47 online newspaper sites with analysis based on
Entman’s23 core functions of news that deal primarily with public policy, politics
and participation. He identified various participatory features such as citizen
blogs, online letters and polls, external links, forums and message boards. Of
13 features, more than half of the sites offered only three and one-third offered
six; 89 percent used online letters.24
Other research more relevant to the substitutability thesis has explored
what people expect from online journalism. A 2009 Pew-funded study found
that 44 percent of heavy users of online news had customizable Web pages. One
in three said they watched video news clips, 24 percent listened to newscasts
and 27 percent reported emailing stories to others in the past week.25 Tremayne
has shown how links to internal and external sources can provide a “web of
context” for news,26 by linking previous stories and related materials on the
site or linking to other news sites, databases, or dictionaries. Web marketers
emphasize that users demand site interactivity, including information retrieval,
social interaction and problem-solving.27
Research Questions
Despite the number of research articles describing online journalism, little
research exists about the substitutability of citizen Web sites for traditional
newspaper sites. McManus anticipated this substitutability phenomenon when
he said:
The future of blogs will have arrived when you check your favorite blog for
sports news in the morning, instead of your local paper.28
However, given the absence of previous research, this study will pose re-
search questions, rather than testing hypotheses. These questions will address
5. 38 - Newspaper Research Journal • Vol. 31, No. 2 • Spring 2010
three types of attributes and, based on a 2009 study,29 differentiate citizen news
sites and citizen blog sites.
First, an important element of the daily newspaper has been regularity of
availability. Publication cycle affects demand.30 For a citizen journalism site to
be a substitute for a daily newspaper site, its publication cycle would need to
be similar. Thus,
RQ1:
Do citizen blog sites publish content on a daily basis?
RQ2:
Do citizen news sites publish content on a daily basis?
Previous research indicates that many visitors desire interactivity, linkage
and multimedia attributes on their news Web sites.31 For a citizen news or blog
site to be a substitute for a daily newspaper site, its ease of use and access to
information should be similar. Thus,
RQ3:
How similar are citizen blog sites to daily newspaper Web sites?
RQ4:
How similar are citizen news sites to daily newspaper Web sites?
Method
This study involved four steps.
• Selection of 46 metropolitan media markets
• Identification of online citizen and daily newspaper sites in those mar-
kets
• Application of a content analysis protocol to study online citizen journal-
ism
• A visit to citizen news and blog sites to check for timeliness
Forty-six markets were randomly collected from three city sizes (15 each
from large, medium and small markets) as identified by the 2000 census for the
280 Census-defined Metropolitan Statistical Areas with 50,000 or more house-
holds. No markets smaller than 50,000 households were selected because it was
assumed—and later supported by results—that the existence and number of
citizen journalism sites were correlated with market size. Large metro areas
(n=37) were Census-defined as those having 507,000 to 2.2 million households,
medium metro areas (n=129) were those having 100,000 to 506,000 households
and small metro areas (n=111) had 50,000 to 99,000 households.
In addition, one extra large market—Chicago—was randomly selected from
among New York, Chicago and Los Angeles. These three markets are consider-
ably larger and more complex in their political and media systems and were,
6. Lacy, Duffy, Riffe, Thorson and Fleming: Citizen Journalism Web Sites - 39
therefore, more likely to have citizen journalism sites. The three were placed
in a separate category and one was randomly selected.
To qualify for inclusion, each market had to have at least one site meeting
the definition of “citizen journalism,” identified with a specific local geographic
area. Local was defined as being at the metropolitan, county, city or neighbor-
hood levels. Additionally, the site had to have a significant portion of its content
be original and provided by volun-
teers or community members, not
professional journalists. Citizen
journalism sites were further di-
vided into citizen news sites and
citizen blog sites. This was based Newspaper sites were
on self-identification of the sites more likely to have contact
by examining the “About,” FAQ
and other informational sections information, a wide range
of the sites. of electronic distribution
Inclusion screening began with
three sources that have lists of citi- technology and more
zen journalism sites: Placeblogger interactive elements.
(http://www.placeblogger.com/),
Knight Citizen News Network
Daily newspaper sites
(http://www.kcnn.org/) and Cy- allowed more uploading
perjournalism.net (http://www. opportunities than did
cyberjournalist.net). In addition,
Web searches were run to identify citizen blog sites, but not
additional sites with the goal of more than citizen news
being as inclusive as possible.
However, several blogs turned out sites.
to be about hobbies, personal expe-
riences or other topics that did not
qualify for citizen journalism.
The procedure identified 53
citizen news sites and 86 citizen
blog sites in the 46 markets. In ad-
dition, the 63 Web sites of all daily newspapers located in the 46 markets were
also sampled.
A content analysis protocol was developed to analyze site attributes in order
to answer the questions about the similarity of citizen journalism and traditional
newspaper sites. The protocol involved coding sites for a variety of presentation,
linkage, financial support and citizen participation or involvement attributes.
Some of the attributes used here were taken from Rosenberry and others were
added by the authors.32 Three coders each coded 363 site units. Scott’s Pi was
used to check reliability. Of the 19 site variables, four fell between .72 and .8,
13 fell between .8 and .9 and two were between .9 and 1.0.33
7. 40 - Newspaper Research Journal • Vol. 31, No. 2 • Spring 2010
To answer RQ1 and RQ2 about timeliness, the citizen news and blog sites
were visited during June and July 2009, about a year after the original downloads
from the sites. The sites were visited randomly and each was checked for the
date of its most recent posting. Inactive sites were also noted. The operational
measure of timeliness was calculated by subtracting the date of visit from the
most recent posting date on the opening page of the site. For example, if a site
was visited on June 15 and the last posting was June 15, timeliness = 0. If the
site was visited on June 20 and the last posting was June 15, timeliness = 5. The
lower the number, the more timely the postings.
Because this was a random sample, data were analyzed using Chi-square
and differences in proportion statistics to test whether the differences likely
existed in the population from which the data were drawn. Statistical signifi-
cance was set at p < .05 to determine if the citizen journalism sites and stories
differed from the traditional newspaper sites and stories in the 280 MSAs from
which the citizen news and blog sites were sampled.
Findings
RQ1 asks if citizen blog sites published content on a daily or timely basis.
Of the 85 citi-
zen blog sites,
27.1 percent had Table 1
published the Most Recent Postings on Citizen News and Blog Sites
day of the visit
Citizen Citizen Total
and 55.3 percent News Sites Blog Sites
had published
during the past Yesterday 28.8% 27.1% 27.7%
week. [See Table One to seven days old 44.2% 28.2% 34.3%
Eight to 14 days 3.8% 10.6% 8.0%
1] Another 10.6 15 to 30 days 3.8% 7.1% 5.8%
percent had pub- 31 and 120 days 1.9% 11.8% 8.0%
lished within the More than 120 days or no
past two weeks. longer online 17.3% 15.3% 16.1%
The majority of N 52 85 137
the citizen blog Chi-square = 8.81, d.f. = 5, p = .117
sites were not
timely compared
to daily newspaper sites.
RQ2 asks if the citizen news sites published content daily.
Table 1 shows that 28.8 percent of the sites published the day of the visit, and
73 percent had posted within the previous week. These data show that citizen
news sites were slightly timelier than citizen blog sites, but the vast majority
was not timely if daily posting is the standard for timeliness.
8. Lacy, Duffy, Riffe, Thorson and Fleming: Citizen Journalism Web Sites - 41
Table 2
Web Site Characteristics on Daily Newspaper, Citizen News
and Citizen Blog Sites (Percentages of Sites with Characteristic
Characteristic Daily Citizen Citizen
Newspapers News Blog
(n=63) Sites Sites
(n=53) (n=86)
Site contact
Email contact provided 98 91 28
Phone number provided 92 28 8
Address provided 79 32 7
Distribution systems
RSS feed on the site 94 77 90
MP3/iPod feed available 27 15 6
Content delivered to cell phone 41 6 2
Able to email individual stories
to third party 86 30 23
Social interaction
Polls or surveys present 38 9 13
Forums present 57 47 34
Citizen uploading ability
Ability to upload information about
community activities 67 70 14
Ability to upload news/feature
stories 44 62 13
Ability to upload “letters to the
“editor” 64 40 15
Ability to upload audio 3 28 1
Ability to upload photographs 49 45 9
Ability to upload video 24 34 1
RQ3 asked how similar citizen blog sites are to traditional newspaper sites.
Table 2 presents characteristics of daily newspaper Web sites, citizen news
sites and citizen blog sites. The standard error of proportion for comparing the
newspaper and blog sites is 4 percent meaning any difference of 8 percent or
more between the two types of sites is significant (p < .05).
Of 15 attributes in Table 2, citizen blog and daily newspaper sites differ
on 13. The only differences that were not statistically significant are RSS feeds
and ability to upload audio. In every other way, the two types of sites differed
significantly. In general, newspaper Web sites provided both more contact
information and more distribution systems. Newspaper sites generally had
more interactivity (e.g., polls, forums and the ability to upload material). Put
simply, daily newspaper sites are more sophisticated technologically than
citizen blog sites.
9. 42 - Newspaper Research Journal • Vol. 31, No. 2 • Spring 2010
Table 3 data concern the use of hyperlinks to other sites. Hyperlinks do
not require extensive technology, meaning citizen blogs could afford to use
links as much as newspaper sites. The two types of sites differ at the p < .05
level for three of the four groups of link measures. Citizen blog sites generally
have more links to local sites than do the daily newspaper Web sites. A larger
percentage of citizen blog sites link to other citizen news and blog sites than
do daily newspapers sites. The two types of sites did not differ on links to
commercial Web sites.
RQ4 asked how similar citizen news site are to daily newspaper sites.
Table 2 data allow comparison between the two types of sites on the 15
attributes of Web sites. The standard error of proportion for the two types of
sites equals 4.6 percent. Any difference exceeding 9.2 percent is statistically
significant.
Citizen news sites differed from daily newspaper sites in 13 of the 15 at-
tributes. The two types of sites failed to differ only in email contact provided
(newspaper sites, 98 percent; citizen news sites, 91 percent) and ability to upload
photographs (newspaper sites, 49 percent; citizen news sites, 45 percent). Despite
these differences, the percentages for the citizen news sites were closer to the
newspaper Web sites than were the percentages on citizen blog sites.
Table 3 shows statistically significant differences in three of the four linkage
groups. More citizen news sites linked to local sites, to citizen news sites and
to citizen blog and aggregate sites than did newspaper sites. The two types of
sites did not differ in number of links to commercial journalism sites.
Discussion
These data indicate that citizen journalism Web sites (news and blog sites) are
generally not acceptable substitutes for daily newspaper Web sites. Only slightly
more than a quarter of the citizen news and blog sites published the same day
they were visited, which indicates most are not as timely as daily newspaper
sites. Even if a citizen news or blog site has daily postings, it is unlikely that such
sites have as many items as daily newspapers have because citizen journalism
sites depend mostly on volunteers rather than paid journalists.
The daily newspaper sites also differed significantly from the citizen news
and citizen blog sites in a number of Web site and content attributes. Newspaper
sites were more likely to have contact information, a wide range of electronic
distribution technology and more interactive elements. Daily newspaper sites
allowed more uploading opportunities than did citizen blog sites, but not more
than citizen news sites.
Newspaper sites also differed significantly in terms of linking to other Web
sites. As a rule, citizen news and blog sites used more external links than did
the newspaper Web sites and were more likely to link to local Web sites than
were newspaper sites.
10. Lacy, Duffy, Riffe, Thorson and Fleming: Citizen Journalism Web Sites - 43
Table 3
Comparison of Website Links on Daily Newspaper, Citizen News
and Citizen Blog Sites (Percentages of Sites with Types of Links)
Characteristic Daily Citizen Citizen
Newspapers News Sites Blog Site
(n=63) (n=53) (n=86)
Local sites
No local site external links 27 30 21
1 to 10 local external links 57 38 46
11 or more external links 16 32 33
Newspaper-blog X2 (d.f.= 2) = 7.9, p < .025
Newspaper-news site X2 (d.f.=2) = 9.3, p < .01
Commercial news sites
No commercial legacy
site links 73 72 65
1 or more commercial
legacy site links 27 28 35
Newspaper-blog X2 (d.f.= 1) = 1.5, p < .20
Newspaper-news site X2 (d.f.=1) = 0.3, p < .60
Citizen news sites
No citizen news site links 86 55 58
1 to 10 citizen news
site links 14 30 40
11 or more citizen
news site links 0 15 2
Newspaper-blog X (d.f.= 2) = 12.2, p < .001
2
Newspaper-news site X2 (d.f.=2) = 16.4, p < .001
Citizen blog or aggregation site
No citizen blog or
aggregation site links 84 48 17
1 to 10 citizen blog or
aggregate site links 11 26 39
11 or more citizen blog or
aggregate site links 5 26 44
Newspaper-blog X2 (d.f.= 2) = 91.1, p < .001
Newspaper-news site X2 (d.f.=2) = 30.1, p < .001
The data also suggest at least four observations about citizen news and
blog sites and their relationship to daily newspaper sites. First, the citizen
news sites and citizen blog sites appear to be very different. The citizen news
sites resemble daily newspaper sites more than do blog sites, which indicates
11. 44 - Newspaper Research Journal • Vol. 31, No. 2 • Spring 2010
clearly that blog and news sites are not necessarily substitutes for each other
within a local community.
Second, the primary differences between daily newspaper and citizen news
and blog sites probably reflect a difference in resources. Timeliness requires a
newsroom that interacts with the community on a regular basis, and, as a result,
news stories typically require greater investment of time than do opinion pieces.
The greater number of technological distribution systems (iPod, RSS, etc.) on daily
newspaper sites also indicates a higher level of investment. The overall higher
level of investment at daily newspaper sites results from having a traditional
print version and from the larger newsroom and budgets associated with being
a commercial enterprise. This difference in resources will likely perpetuate the
inability of citizen news sites to become substitutes for daily newspaper sites,
even though resources continue to decline at commercial newspapers.
Although only 27.7 percent of the sites posted an article the day before the
random visit, 71 percent of the citizen news sites and 55 percent of the citizen
blog sites had posted within the past seven days of the visit. On this attribute,
citizen news sites more closely resemble weekly newspapers—perhaps a func-
tion of lacking the resources needed to be timely. Weekly newspapers typically
require fewer resources than do dailies. This raises the possibility that citizen
news sites might be better substitutes for weekly newspaper sites than for daily
newspaper sites.
Finally, these data suggest that, like weeklies, citizen news and blog sites
can serve as complements to daily newspapers. They can provide opinion and
hyperlocal news that large dailies do not. Dailies have more resources, but they
tend to concentrate those resources on issues that affect larger geographic areas
in their markets. The dailies are less likely to cover details of a neighborhood
than are citizen news and blog sites, unless they actually imitate these citizen
sites. Perhaps serving as a complement better suits these citizen sites.
This study has its limits. The limited number of sites and lack of stories in
the content analysis call for an expanded analysis. Of course, larger samples
of sites would be useful, but the differences were large enough that a larger
sample would not likely affect the conclusions. Also, a survey of news consumers
would provide more detail about the degree that citizen journalism sites serve
as substitutes and complements for traditional news organization sites.
Despite its limits, the results suggest future areas of study. A more detailed
comparison of the story content produced by newspapers and citizen journalism
sites would provide more evidence about the level of substitutability between
the two. A study correlating newspaper print penetration and Web site visits
with the relative amount of newspaper local coverage—compared to citizen
journalism sites—swould provide an even better test of substitutability. Equally
useful would be a survey of community members about their perceptions of
newspaper and citizen journalism substitutability. Such a survey could address
whether community members see citizen journalism Web sites as substitutes
for weeklies and complements for dailies.
12. Lacy, Duffy, Riffe, Thorson and Fleming: Citizen Journalism Web Sites - 45
Notes
1. Eric Sass, “Total Newspaper Readership Grows,” Media Daily News, July 21, 2008, <http://
www.mediapost.com/publications/?fa=Articles.showArticle&art_aid=86909> (July 16, 2009); Jeff
Sigmund, “Newspaper Web Site Audience Rises Twelve Percent in 2008,” Newspaper Association of
America, Jan. 29, 2009, <http://www.naa.org/PressCenter/SearchPressReleases/2009/NEWSPA-
PER-WEB-SITE-AUDIENCE-RISES.aspx> (July 17, 2009).
2. “U.S. Newspaper Ads to Decline 22% in 2009,” IT Facts, April 13, 2009, <http://www.
itfacts.biz/us-newspaper-ads-to-decline-22-in-2009/12955> (July 17, 2009); Robin Wauters, “From
Terrible to Terrifying: Newspaper Ad Sales Plummet #2.6 Billion in Q1 2009,” TechCrunch, June 2,
2009, <http://www.techcrunch.com/2009/06/02/from-terrible-to-terrifying-newspaper-ad-sales-
plummet-26-billion-in-first-quarter/> (July 17, 2009).
3. David B. Wilkerson, “Two More Newspaper File for Bankruptcy,” MarketWatch.com, Feb.
23, 2009, <http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?StoryId={6318B42D-949B-4162-B3D5-
4A043E067193}> (July 17, 2009); “US Newsroom Employment Declines,” American Society of News
Editors, April 16, 2009, <http://www.asne.org/index.cfm?ID=7323> (July 17, 2009).
4. Robert MacMillan, “Newspapers: They’re *still* dying,” Reuter Blogs, June 4, 2009, <http://
blogs.reuters.com/mediafile/2009/06/04/newspapers-theyre-still-dying/> (18 July 2009); John
Nichols and Robert W. McChesney, “The Life and Death of Great American Newspapers,” The
Nation, March 18, 2009, <http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090406/nichols_mcchesney?rel=rig
htsideaccordian> (July 18, 2009).
5. This discussion takes a variety of forms with much of it occurring online. We found no
empirical studies that tested the substitutability of citizen journalism and traditional newspapers.
Here is a sampling of the discussion: John Zhu, “Who Says Blogs Can Replace Newspapers?! Well
These People,” Matters of Varying Insignificance, April 4, 2009, <http://www.john-zhu.com/
blog/2009/04/08/who-says-blogs-can-replace-newspapers-well-these-people/> (July 19, 2009);
Josh Benton, “Citizen Journalism: Not There Yet,” Neiman Journalism Lab, Dec. 18, 2009, <http://
www.niemanlab.org/2008/12/citizen-media-not-there-yet/> (July 19, 2009); Alex Argote, “The
Awe-Inspiring Power of Citizen Journalism: New Media Phenomenon Will Eventually Replace the
Traditional Newspaper,” Ohmynews, Aug. 22, 2007, <http://english.ohmynews.com/ArticleView/
article_view.asp?menu=&no=376838&rel_no=1&back_url=> (July 19, 2009).
6. George J. Stigler, The Theory of Price (Rev. ed.) (New York: The MacMillan Co., 1952).
7. Although many news organizations have called for a subscription model for online news,
few have been successful so far. The Little Rock Arkansas Democrat Gazette charges $4.95 per month
for an online-only subscription and the Wall Street Journal continues its subscription model, though
that model is evidently a matter of continuing debate internally. In 2007, the New York Times shut-
tered “TimesSelect” that charged for certain premium content. To date, few online news sites are
able to charge for content and readers are even resistant to free registration requirement. See Julie
Kosterlitz, “A Nonprofit Model for News: As the Newspaper and Broadcast Industries Shrink,
Philanthropic Ventures Seek to Rejuvenate News Reporting,” National Journal Magazine, Nov. 15,
2009, <http://technorati.com/blogging/state-of-the-blogosphere//> (July 12, 2009).
8. Regina Lewis, “Relation between Newspaper Subscription Price and Circulation, 1971-1992,”
Journal of Media Economics 8, no. 1 (1995): 24-41.
9. For a discussion of factors that affect demand, read Stephen Lacy and Todd F. Simon, The Eco-
nomics and Regulation of United States Newspapers (Norwoord, NJ: Ablex Publishing, 1993), 23-26.
10. Edward H. Chamberlin, The Theory of Monopolistic Competition, 8th ed. (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1962).
11. Stephen Lacy, “A Model of Demand for News: Impact of Competition on Newspaper
Content,” Journalism Quarterly 66, no. 1 (spring 1989): 40-48, 128.
12. Lacy and Simon, The Economics and Regulation.
13. 46 - Newspaper Research Journal • Vol. 31, No. 2 • Spring 2010
13. Mark Glaser, “The New Voices: Hyperlocal Citizen Media Sites Want You to Write! Online
Journalism Review, Nov. 17, 2004, <http://www.ojr.org/ojr/glaser/1098833871.php> (March 29,
2009).
14. Dan Gillmor, We the Media: Grassroots Journalism by the People, for the People (Sebastopol,
CA: O’Reilly Media, Inc., 2004).
15. Clyde Bentley, Brian Hamman, Jeremy Littau, Hans Meyer, Brendan Watson and Beth
Walsh, “Citizen Journalism: A Case Study,” in Blogging, Citizenship, and the Future of Media, ed.
Mark Tremayne (New York: Routledge, 2007), 239-260.
16. Mark Deuze, “The Web and Its Journalisms: Considering the Consequences of Different
Types of News Media Online,” New Media and Society 5, no. 2 (June 2003): 203-230.
17. James W. Tankard and Hyun Ban, “Online Newspapers: Living Up to Their Potential?”
(paper presented to the annual conference of the AEJMC, Baltimore, Md. August 1998).
18. Brian L. Massey, “Examination of 38 Web Newspapers Shows Nonlinear Storytelling Rare,”
Newspaper Research Journal 26, no. 4 (fall 2004): 96-102.
19. Mark Tremayne, Amy Schmitz Weiss and Rosental Calmon Alves, “From Product to Ser-
vice: The Diffusion of Dynamic Content in Online Newspapers,” Journalism & Mass Communication
Quarterly 84, no. 3 (autumn 2007): 825-839.
20. Jennifer Greer and Donica Mensing, “The Evolution of Online Newspapers: A Longitudinal
Content Analysis, 1997-2003,” in Internet Newspapers: The Making of a Mainstream Medium, ed. Xigen
Li (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2006), 13-32.
21. Stephen R. Lacy, Daniel Riffe, Esther Thorson and Margaret Duffy, “Examining the Features,
Policies, and Resources of Citizen Journalism: Citizen News Sites and Blogs,” Web Journal of Mass
Communication Research, June 15, 2009, <http://www.wjmcr.org/> (July 11, 2009).
22. Jack Rosenberry, “Few Papers Use Online Techniques to Improve Public Communication,”
Newspaper Research Journal 26, no. 4 (fall 2005): 61-73.
23. Robert Entman, “The Nature and Sources of News,” in The Press, eds. Geneva Overholser
and Kathleen H. Jamieson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 48-65.
24. Rosenberry, “Few Papers Use.”
25. Project for Excellence in Journalism, State of the Media, 2009, March 2009, <http://www.
stateofthenewsmedia.com/2009/narrative_online_audience.php?cat=2&media=5> (July 12,
2009).
26. Mark Tremayne, “The Web of Context: Applying Network Theory to the Use of Hyperlinks
in Journalism on the Web,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 81, no. 1 (spring 2004):
237-253.
27. Ralph F. Wilson, “Web Interactivity and Customer Focus,” About.com, 25 August 1996,
<http://onlinebusiness.about.com/b/2008/10/13/customers-want-social-media-interaction-from-
businesses.htm> (March 19, 2009); G. Go, “Customers Want Social Interaction from Businesses,
About.com, Oct. 13, 2008, <http://onlinebusiness.about.com/b/2008/10/13/customers-want-
social-media-interaction-from-businesses.htm> (March 19, 2009).
28. Richard McManus, “State of the Blogosphere,” Technorati, Sept. 26, 2008, <http://technorati.
com/blogging/state-of-the-blogosphere//> (July 12, 2009).
29. Lacy, Riffe, Thorson and Duffy, “Examining the Features.”
30. Lacy and Simon, The Economics and Regulation, 36.
31.Tremayne, “The Web of Context.”
32. Rosenberry, “Few Papers Use.”
33. The Scott’s Pi for the Web site variables are: email contact provided, .72; MP3/iPod feed
available, .77; content delivered to cell phones, .77; RSS feeds on site, .79; polls or survey presence,
.83; ability to upload news/feature stories, .85; ability to upload letters to the editor, .85; ability to
email individual stories, .86; forums present, .86; links to commercial Web sites, .86; links to citizen
news sites, .86; phone number provided, .87; address provided, .87; ability to upload photos, .87;
links to local sites, .88; ability to upload video, .89; ability to upload community activities informa-
tion, .89; ability to upload audio, .91; and links to citizen blogs, .93.